Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa

Publikation: Qualifikations-/Studienabschlussarbeit › Dissertation

Autoren

  • Huon Morton

Organisationseinheiten

Forschungs-netzwerk anzeigen

Details

OriginalspracheEnglisch
QualifikationDoctor rerum politicarum
Gradverleihende Hochschule
Betreut von
  • Ulrike Grote, Betreuer*in
Datum der Verleihung des Grades23 Feb. 2018
ErscheinungsortHannover
PublikationsstatusVeröffentlicht - 2018

Abstract

Natürliche Ressourcen bilden die Lebensgrundlage vieler ländlicher Haushalte in Entwicklungsländern. Die Auswirkungen unklarer Eigentumsrechte, extremer Armut, nicht funktionierender Märkte und Institutionen trägt dazu bei, dass natürliche Ressourcen, mit samt den Gemeinschaften, die von ihnen abhängen, dem Risiko der Gemeingüter-Tragik ausgesetzt sind. Gemeinschaftliches Management natürlicher Ressourcen (CBNRM) ist ein Ansatz, der es Gemeinschaften ermöglicht, ihre natürlichen Ressourcen nachhaltig zu nutzen, und damit ökonomische Entwicklung und soziale Gleichheit verbessert. CBNRM erfreut sich immer größerer Beliebtheit in Afrika südlich der Sahara, und sowohl Regierungs- als auch Nichtregierungsorganisationen fördern die Vorteile des Programms. Die wenigen empirischen Studien, die sich mit den ökonomischen und ökologischen Auswirkungen CBNRMs beschäftigen, kommen allerdings zu unterschiedlichen Ergebnissen hinsichtlich positiver oder negativer Programmauswirkungen. Diese Arbeit verfolgt daher einen ganzheitlichen Ansatz. Mit Hilfe einer detaillierten Fallstudie in einem CBNRM Gebiet (das Sikunga Naturschutzgebiet) in der nordöstlichen Sambesi Region Namibias werden drei spezifische Forschungsziele verfolgt. Es geht konkret darum, (1) unterschiedliche Existenzstrategien innerhalb der Gemeinschaft zu identifizieren, die jeweiligen Unterschiede in der Ressourcennutzung zu erkennen, und zu analysieren, wie diese Unterschiede die ökonomische Gleichheit in der Gemeinschaft bedingen, (2) die ökonomischen Verbindungen zwischen den verschiedenen ökologischen und nicht-ökologischen Aktivitäten innerhalb der CBNRM-Wirtschaft zu untersuchen; und (3) zu analysieren, wie individuelle und ökologische Faktoren Kooperation zum Schutz der natürlichen Ressourcen schwächen. Die ersten beiden Zielstellungen wurden anhand einer Befragung von 200 Haushalten aus dem Sikunga Naturschutzgebiet untersucht, die im September und Oktober 2012 durchgeführt wurde. Der Datensatz umfasst detaillierte Informationen über Einkommensquellen, Zeitallokation, Konsum und Ausgaben, Nutzung natürlicher Ressourcen, Viehwirtschaft und Pflanzenproduktion. Außerdem wurden Informationen zu sozio-demographischen Haushaltseigenschaften und Sozialkapital gesammelt. Für die Analyse des Datensatzes wurden zwei aufeinander aufbauende empirische Strategien genutzt. Entsprechend der ersten Zielstellung, wurde eine zweistufige Clusteranalyse durchgeführt, die die Haushalte anhand ihrer jeweiligen Existenzstrategie in unikale Gruppen (Cluster) kategorisiert. Diese Haushaltscluster wurden dann benutzt, um eine ökologisch-erweiterte Social Accounting Matrix (ESAM) zu entwickeln. Diese ESAM diente als Grundlage zur Durchführung unbeschränkter und beschränkter Multiplikatoranalysen, um, entsprechend der zweiten Zielstellung, die Verbindungen zwischen ökologischen und nicht-ökologischen Aktivitäten innerhalb der Gemeinschaft zu identifizieren. Zur Bearbeitung der dritten Zielstellung wurde eine Serie von Lab-in-the-Field-Experimenten zur Eruierung des Kollektivgut-Verhaltens der Gemeinschaftsmitglieder im Sikunga Naturschutzgebiet im September und Oktober 2014 durchgeführt, wobei die Haushalte nur teilweise mit denen aus der vorangegangen Welle übereinstimmen. Die experimentellen Daten sind in Paneldatenform und erlauben daher die Anwendung von Generalized Least Squares Random Effects und Poisson Random Effects Modellen. Methodisch trägt diese Arbeit zum gegenwärtigen Forschungsstand in der Verhaltensökonomie in der Literatur zu öffentlichen Gütern auf verschiedene Weise bei. Erstens beinhaltet das Kollektivgut-Experiment tatsächliche Anstrengungen seitens der Teilnehmer, welche sowohl im Feld als auch im Labor durchgeführt werden können. Während tatsächliche Anstrengungen im Labor im Laufe der Zeit zum Standard geworden sind, steht die Umsetzung im Feld vor allerlei Herausforderungen. Zum Beispiel hängen diese Aufgaben von Fähigkeiten zu rechnen und zu lesen, oder von einfachen physischen Eigenschaften wie der Sehstärke, ab. Besonders in ländlichen Gebieten Afrikas südlich der Sahara sind diese Fähigkeiten unter dem Niveau der westlichen Welt. In dieser Arbeit wird eine tatsächliche Anstrengung so modelliert, dass diese Fallstricke überwunden werden können. Zweitens, ist dies die erste empirische Studie, die konsistent die Auswirkungen von Risiko in einem Kollektivgutexperiment untersucht, indem Risiko simultan auf das private und das öffentliche Gut angewandt wird. Durch den Vergleich des Teilnehmerverhaltens in einem risiko-neutralen und in einem risiko-behafteten Kontext in zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Experimenten, ist es möglich, den Effekt von Risikoaversion und Wahrscheinlichkeitsgewichtung zu kontrollieren und letztlich den Einfluss von Risiko auf Kooperationsverhalten zu identifizieren. Auf diese Weise trägt diese Arbeit eine neue Dimension zum, von Ostrom entwickelten, Teufelskreis der Kooperation bei. Drittens ermöglicht das Experiment die Quantifizierung des Risikoeffekts auf das Anstrengungslevel in einer kontrollierten Umgebung. Während viele Studien quasi-experimentelle Methoden anwendeten, erfolgt in dieser Arbeit die Quantifizierung des Risikoeffekts zum ersten Mal in einer kontrollierten Umgebung. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit liefern neue Erkenntnisse in der Verhaltensökonomie zu Kollektivgütern und können zu einer Verbesserung der Programmgestaltung von CBNRMs beitragen. Erstens ist die Wirtschaftsstruktur in der Studienregion zugunsten der wohlhabenderen Haushalte ausgerichtet und zu denen, die näher an den Hauptinfrastrukturen leben, wie Straßen und Elektrizität. Mit Hilfe des Programms konnten Eigentumsrechte auf die Gemeinschaft übertragen werden, aber ohne Entwicklungsstrategien, die speziell die verletzlichen Haushalte in der Gemeinschaft unterstützen, konnte die Elite durch kommerziellen Abbau und Handel größere Renditen aus den natürlichen Ressourcen ziehen. Ärmere Haushalte sind dagegen weiterhin auf die natürlichen Ressourcen zur Deckung ihres Eigenbedarfs angewiesen. Zweitens, unter Berücksichtigung der biologischen Grenzen des Naturschutzgebietes, gibt es nur wenig ökonomische Integration zwischen den ökologischen und nicht-ökologischen Aktivitäten innerhalb der Dorfgemeinschaft. Im Gegensatz dazu, gibt es starke Verbindungen zwischen verschiedenen ökonomischen Aktivitäten mit erhöhter Nachfrage für eine bestimmte Ressource. Dies führt zu erhöhter Nachfrage für die meisten anderen Rohstoffe, anstatt zur Stimulation anderer Sektoren außerhalb des Rohstoffabbaus in der Dorfgemeinschaft. Daher dürfte es für die Gemeinschaft schwer sein, ihr Einkommen aus dem CBNRM-Programm zur Diversifizierung ihrer wirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten zu nutzen und langfristig aus der Ressourcennutzung herauszukommen. Drittens identifiziert diese Arbeit potentielle verhaltensökonomische Faktoren, die die positiven Auswirkungen des CBNRMs beschränken könnten. Die Ergebnisse des Lab-in-the-Field-Experiments zeigen, dass Risiko Aufwands- und Kooperationsbereitschaft negativ beeinflusst. In einem risiko-neutralen Kontext waren Haushalte eher bereit, in öffentliche Güter zu investieren als in einem risiko-behafteten Kontext. Weiterhin wurde belegt, dass gemeinsame Strategien zur Verbesserung der Kooperation und Kommunikation in Gegenwart von Risiko nicht effektiv sind. Dies hebt eine potentielle Schwachstelle des CBNRM Programmdesigns hervor, wobei die Risiken des gemeinschaftlichen Vermögens und Unternehmen weder abgemildert noch versichert sind. Diese nicht versicherten Risiken könnten für Haushalte Anreiz sein, sich von der Gemeinschaft abzusetzen und in ihr eigenes Unternehmen zu investieren, zum Beispiel in die Umwandlung von gemeinschaftseigenen Lebensraum für Wildtiere in privates landwirtschaftliches Eigentum. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Fallstudie, dass das CBNRM Programm wahrscheinlich nur begrenzt Vorteile für die Forschungsregion haben wird. In Hinsicht auf die Literatur deuten die Ergebnisse an, warum die ökonomischen Effekte von CBNRM bisher nicht eindeutig sind. Es wird empfohlen, verschiedene Methoden und empirische Strategien, die sowohl individuelle Haushalte als auch ihre Überlebensstrategien ins Zentrum stellen, in der Analyse zu berücksichtigen. Letztlich suggerieren die Ergebnisse des Experiments, dass die Gegenwart ungemilderter Risiken eine Bedrohung für Gemeinschaftsprojekte, die auf Kooperation bauen, darstellt. Akteure aus der Entwicklungspraxis könnten daher in Betracht ziehen, wie Gemeinschaften gegenüber Risiken, wie Niederschlagsveränderungen oder Konflikte zwischen Wildtieren und Menschen, versichert werden können.

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Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa. / Morton, Huon.
Hannover, 2018. 147 S.

Publikation: Qualifikations-/Studienabschlussarbeit › Dissertation

Morton, H 2018, 'Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa', Doctor rerum politicarum, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover. https://doi.org/10.15488/3529
Morton, H. (2018). Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa. [Dissertation, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover]. https://doi.org/10.15488/3529
Morton H. Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa. Hannover, 2018. 147 S. doi: 10.15488/3529
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@phdthesis{5f8f8cc7131e4f4e970e310d2abe78e2,
title = "Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa",
abstract = "In remote areas of developing countries, the livelihoods of many rural households are highly dependent on natural resources. However, the impact of poorly defined property rights, extreme levels of poverty, dysfunctional markets and government institutions place the natural resources, and the communities that depend on them, at risk of becoming another tale of the “tragedy of the commons”. Community based natural resource management (CBNRM) was promoted as an approach that would enable communities to sustainably manage their natural resources which would also enhance economic development and economic and social equality. CBRNM has become increasingly popular in sub-Saharan Africa, and governments and NGOs alike continue to promote the perceived benefits of CBNRM programmes. The few extant empirical studies, however, that investigate economic and environmental impacts of CBNRM derive inconsistent conclusions whether CBNRM impacts are positive or negative. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the role of social, natural, physical, human and financial capital in influencing the impact of CBNRMs. This thesis therefore takes a holistic approach by means of a detailed case study on a single CBNRM area (the Sikunga Conservancy) in the north-eastern Zambezi region of Namibia, this thesis focuses on three specific research objectives: (1) to identify the different livelihood strategies within the community, to investigate the extent to which different strategies utilize natural resources, and to analyse how this improves economic equality within the community; (2) to examine the economic linkages between the different environmental and non-environmental activities within the CBNRM-economy; and (3) to investigate how individual and environmental factors may degrade cooperation to protect natural resources. The first two objectives are met using household survey data from 200 households in the Sikunga Conservancy collected in September and October 2012. The data set contains detailed information on income sources, time-use, consumption and expenditure data, harvesting of natural resources, livestock and crop management. Information on each household{\textquoteright}s socio-demographics and social capital was also collected. The survey data is utilized in two different empirical strategies that build upon each other. To meet the first research objective, a two-step cluster analysis is conducted, identifying the unique groups of households within the study area which adopt similar livelihood strategies. The household clusters were 9 then used to develop an environmentally extended village social accounting matrix (ESAM). According to the second objective, the ESAM serves as a basis to conduct a series of unconstrained and constrained multiplier analyses to identify the linkages between environmental and non-environment based activities, and the different household groups and other institutions within the community. The third objective is addressed via a series of artefactual lab-in-the-field experiments to elicit community members{\textquoteright} behaviour towards public goods that were conducted in the same community, with a partial overlap between households, in September and October 2014. The lab-in-the-field experiment data follows the form of panel data. As such, a series of Generalized Least Squares Random Effects and Poisson Random Effects models are applied. Methodologically, the thesis makes several contributions to the current research of behavioural economics in public good literature. First, it provides a real-effort based public good game which can be implemented in the field as well as in laboratories. Whilst laboratory real-effort tasks are common place and have been relatively standardized over time, the conduct in the field has several challenges. For example, these tasks are heavily biased towards basic levels of numeracy, literacy or even simple physical characteristics such as level of sight. Especially in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa where numeracy and literacy levels may be well below the western world, and simple things such as sight or hearing deprivation remain untreated. This thesis details a real-effort task which overcomes these constraints by utilising a simple physical sorting task. Second, it is the first empirical study of its kind to consistently examine the impact of risk in a public good game; by simultaneously applying risk to the private and public goods. By comparing participants{\textquoteright} behaviours in a risk neutral and risky setting in two sequential public good games the experiment is able to limit the impact of risk aversion and probability weighting and finally, identify the impacts of risk on cooperative behaviour. In this way, it adds a new dimension to the virtuous circle of cooperation developed by Ostrom. Furthermore, by utilising a real-effort based experiment, it also quantifies the impact of risk on exertion levels in a controlled environment. Whilst many studies have used quasi-experimental methods and econometrics to quantify the impact of risk on effort levels, this is the first time that it has been quantified in a controlled environment. Empirically, the results obtained in this thesis contribute to existing knowledge and help improve CBNRM programme designs. Firstly, in the study area, the structure of the economy is heavily biased towards the wealthier households, and those located near the main infrastructure such as roads and electricity. CBNRM has transferred property rights for natural resources to the community, but without development policies that specifically target vulnerable households within the community the elite and wealthy households have been able to extract greater rents from the natural resources via more commercial harvesting and trading. Poorer households largely continue to rely on natural resources for subsistence. Secondly, when the biological limits of the conservancy are taken into consideration, there is little economic integration between the environmental and non-environmental activities within the village economy. Conversely, there are strong interlinkages within different environmental activities, with increased demand for natural resources, leading to increased demand for most other environmental resources, rather than stimulating other off-farm sectors within the village economy. Therefore, communities may struggle to use income derived from CBNRM to diversify their economy and shift away from natural resource consumption. Thirdly, as well as highlighting the importance of the local underlying economic structures when designing CBNRM programmes, this study also identifies potential behavioural factors which may limit the positive impact of CBNRM. The results of the lab-in-the-field experiment show that risk negatively impacts on effort and cooperation levels. Faced with pay-off equivalent situations, households were more likely to invest in public goods in risk neutral contexts than in risky contexts. Furthermore, common strategies to enhance cooperation such as communication and observation proved to be ineffective in the presence of risk. This highlights a potential flaw in the design of many CBNRM programmes where the risk to community owned assets and enterprises are unmitigated and uninsured. The uninsured risks in community assets may create the incentive for households to reduce their contributions to public goods and invest in their own private assets and enterprises, to the detriment of community-owned ones such as the conversion of community-owned wildlife grazing lands to private land for agriculture. Overall the results of the case study show that the CBNRM programme in the study area is likely to have limited benefits. With respect to the literature they may help to explain why the literature to date onthe economic impacts of CBNRM has been inconclusive. It is recommended to consider multiple methods and empirical strategies that consider individual households and livelihood strategies at the centre of analysis. Finally, the experiment results suggest that the presence of unmitigated risk poses a threat to community projects that are dependent on cooperation. Development practitioners may need to consider ways of insuring community projects against risks such as weather and wild-life conflicts. ",
author = "Huon Morton",
note = "Doctoral thesis",
year = "2018",
doi = "10.15488/3529",
language = "English",
school = "Leibniz University Hannover",

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Download

TY - BOOK

T1 - Economic development and natural resource consumption in sub-Saharan Africa

AU - Morton, Huon

N1 - Doctoral thesis

PY - 2018

Y1 - 2018

N2 - In remote areas of developing countries, the livelihoods of many rural households are highly dependent on natural resources. However, the impact of poorly defined property rights, extreme levels of poverty, dysfunctional markets and government institutions place the natural resources, and the communities that depend on them, at risk of becoming another tale of the “tragedy of the commons”. Community based natural resource management (CBNRM) was promoted as an approach that would enable communities to sustainably manage their natural resources which would also enhance economic development and economic and social equality. CBRNM has become increasingly popular in sub-Saharan Africa, and governments and NGOs alike continue to promote the perceived benefits of CBNRM programmes. The few extant empirical studies, however, that investigate economic and environmental impacts of CBNRM derive inconsistent conclusions whether CBNRM impacts are positive or negative. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the role of social, natural, physical, human and financial capital in influencing the impact of CBNRMs. This thesis therefore takes a holistic approach by means of a detailed case study on a single CBNRM area (the Sikunga Conservancy) in the north-eastern Zambezi region of Namibia, this thesis focuses on three specific research objectives: (1) to identify the different livelihood strategies within the community, to investigate the extent to which different strategies utilize natural resources, and to analyse how this improves economic equality within the community; (2) to examine the economic linkages between the different environmental and non-environmental activities within the CBNRM-economy; and (3) to investigate how individual and environmental factors may degrade cooperation to protect natural resources. The first two objectives are met using household survey data from 200 households in the Sikunga Conservancy collected in September and October 2012. The data set contains detailed information on income sources, time-use, consumption and expenditure data, harvesting of natural resources, livestock and crop management. Information on each household’s socio-demographics and social capital was also collected. The survey data is utilized in two different empirical strategies that build upon each other. To meet the first research objective, a two-step cluster analysis is conducted, identifying the unique groups of households within the study area which adopt similar livelihood strategies. The household clusters were 9 then used to develop an environmentally extended village social accounting matrix (ESAM). According to the second objective, the ESAM serves as a basis to conduct a series of unconstrained and constrained multiplier analyses to identify the linkages between environmental and non-environment based activities, and the different household groups and other institutions within the community. The third objective is addressed via a series of artefactual lab-in-the-field experiments to elicit community members’ behaviour towards public goods that were conducted in the same community, with a partial overlap between households, in September and October 2014. The lab-in-the-field experiment data follows the form of panel data. As such, a series of Generalized Least Squares Random Effects and Poisson Random Effects models are applied. Methodologically, the thesis makes several contributions to the current research of behavioural economics in public good literature. First, it provides a real-effort based public good game which can be implemented in the field as well as in laboratories. Whilst laboratory real-effort tasks are common place and have been relatively standardized over time, the conduct in the field has several challenges. For example, these tasks are heavily biased towards basic levels of numeracy, literacy or even simple physical characteristics such as level of sight. Especially in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa where numeracy and literacy levels may be well below the western world, and simple things such as sight or hearing deprivation remain untreated. This thesis details a real-effort task which overcomes these constraints by utilising a simple physical sorting task. Second, it is the first empirical study of its kind to consistently examine the impact of risk in a public good game; by simultaneously applying risk to the private and public goods. By comparing participants’ behaviours in a risk neutral and risky setting in two sequential public good games the experiment is able to limit the impact of risk aversion and probability weighting and finally, identify the impacts of risk on cooperative behaviour. In this way, it adds a new dimension to the virtuous circle of cooperation developed by Ostrom. Furthermore, by utilising a real-effort based experiment, it also quantifies the impact of risk on exertion levels in a controlled environment. Whilst many studies have used quasi-experimental methods and econometrics to quantify the impact of risk on effort levels, this is the first time that it has been quantified in a controlled environment. Empirically, the results obtained in this thesis contribute to existing knowledge and help improve CBNRM programme designs. Firstly, in the study area, the structure of the economy is heavily biased towards the wealthier households, and those located near the main infrastructure such as roads and electricity. CBNRM has transferred property rights for natural resources to the community, but without development policies that specifically target vulnerable households within the community the elite and wealthy households have been able to extract greater rents from the natural resources via more commercial harvesting and trading. Poorer households largely continue to rely on natural resources for subsistence. Secondly, when the biological limits of the conservancy are taken into consideration, there is little economic integration between the environmental and non-environmental activities within the village economy. Conversely, there are strong interlinkages within different environmental activities, with increased demand for natural resources, leading to increased demand for most other environmental resources, rather than stimulating other off-farm sectors within the village economy. Therefore, communities may struggle to use income derived from CBNRM to diversify their economy and shift away from natural resource consumption. Thirdly, as well as highlighting the importance of the local underlying economic structures when designing CBNRM programmes, this study also identifies potential behavioural factors which may limit the positive impact of CBNRM. The results of the lab-in-the-field experiment show that risk negatively impacts on effort and cooperation levels. Faced with pay-off equivalent situations, households were more likely to invest in public goods in risk neutral contexts than in risky contexts. Furthermore, common strategies to enhance cooperation such as communication and observation proved to be ineffective in the presence of risk. This highlights a potential flaw in the design of many CBNRM programmes where the risk to community owned assets and enterprises are unmitigated and uninsured. The uninsured risks in community assets may create the incentive for households to reduce their contributions to public goods and invest in their own private assets and enterprises, to the detriment of community-owned ones such as the conversion of community-owned wildlife grazing lands to private land for agriculture. Overall the results of the case study show that the CBNRM programme in the study area is likely to have limited benefits. With respect to the literature they may help to explain why the literature to date onthe economic impacts of CBNRM has been inconclusive. It is recommended to consider multiple methods and empirical strategies that consider individual households and livelihood strategies at the centre of analysis. Finally, the experiment results suggest that the presence of unmitigated risk poses a threat to community projects that are dependent on cooperation. Development practitioners may need to consider ways of insuring community projects against risks such as weather and wild-life conflicts.

AB - In remote areas of developing countries, the livelihoods of many rural households are highly dependent on natural resources. However, the impact of poorly defined property rights, extreme levels of poverty, dysfunctional markets and government institutions place the natural resources, and the communities that depend on them, at risk of becoming another tale of the “tragedy of the commons”. Community based natural resource management (CBNRM) was promoted as an approach that would enable communities to sustainably manage their natural resources which would also enhance economic development and economic and social equality. CBRNM has become increasingly popular in sub-Saharan Africa, and governments and NGOs alike continue to promote the perceived benefits of CBNRM programmes. The few extant empirical studies, however, that investigate economic and environmental impacts of CBNRM derive inconsistent conclusions whether CBNRM impacts are positive or negative. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the role of social, natural, physical, human and financial capital in influencing the impact of CBNRMs. This thesis therefore takes a holistic approach by means of a detailed case study on a single CBNRM area (the Sikunga Conservancy) in the north-eastern Zambezi region of Namibia, this thesis focuses on three specific research objectives: (1) to identify the different livelihood strategies within the community, to investigate the extent to which different strategies utilize natural resources, and to analyse how this improves economic equality within the community; (2) to examine the economic linkages between the different environmental and non-environmental activities within the CBNRM-economy; and (3) to investigate how individual and environmental factors may degrade cooperation to protect natural resources. The first two objectives are met using household survey data from 200 households in the Sikunga Conservancy collected in September and October 2012. The data set contains detailed information on income sources, time-use, consumption and expenditure data, harvesting of natural resources, livestock and crop management. Information on each household’s socio-demographics and social capital was also collected. The survey data is utilized in two different empirical strategies that build upon each other. To meet the first research objective, a two-step cluster analysis is conducted, identifying the unique groups of households within the study area which adopt similar livelihood strategies. The household clusters were 9 then used to develop an environmentally extended village social accounting matrix (ESAM). According to the second objective, the ESAM serves as a basis to conduct a series of unconstrained and constrained multiplier analyses to identify the linkages between environmental and non-environment based activities, and the different household groups and other institutions within the community. The third objective is addressed via a series of artefactual lab-in-the-field experiments to elicit community members’ behaviour towards public goods that were conducted in the same community, with a partial overlap between households, in September and October 2014. The lab-in-the-field experiment data follows the form of panel data. As such, a series of Generalized Least Squares Random Effects and Poisson Random Effects models are applied. Methodologically, the thesis makes several contributions to the current research of behavioural economics in public good literature. First, it provides a real-effort based public good game which can be implemented in the field as well as in laboratories. Whilst laboratory real-effort tasks are common place and have been relatively standardized over time, the conduct in the field has several challenges. For example, these tasks are heavily biased towards basic levels of numeracy, literacy or even simple physical characteristics such as level of sight. Especially in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa where numeracy and literacy levels may be well below the western world, and simple things such as sight or hearing deprivation remain untreated. This thesis details a real-effort task which overcomes these constraints by utilising a simple physical sorting task. Second, it is the first empirical study of its kind to consistently examine the impact of risk in a public good game; by simultaneously applying risk to the private and public goods. By comparing participants’ behaviours in a risk neutral and risky setting in two sequential public good games the experiment is able to limit the impact of risk aversion and probability weighting and finally, identify the impacts of risk on cooperative behaviour. In this way, it adds a new dimension to the virtuous circle of cooperation developed by Ostrom. Furthermore, by utilising a real-effort based experiment, it also quantifies the impact of risk on exertion levels in a controlled environment. Whilst many studies have used quasi-experimental methods and econometrics to quantify the impact of risk on effort levels, this is the first time that it has been quantified in a controlled environment. Empirically, the results obtained in this thesis contribute to existing knowledge and help improve CBNRM programme designs. Firstly, in the study area, the structure of the economy is heavily biased towards the wealthier households, and those located near the main infrastructure such as roads and electricity. CBNRM has transferred property rights for natural resources to the community, but without development policies that specifically target vulnerable households within the community the elite and wealthy households have been able to extract greater rents from the natural resources via more commercial harvesting and trading. Poorer households largely continue to rely on natural resources for subsistence. Secondly, when the biological limits of the conservancy are taken into consideration, there is little economic integration between the environmental and non-environmental activities within the village economy. Conversely, there are strong interlinkages within different environmental activities, with increased demand for natural resources, leading to increased demand for most other environmental resources, rather than stimulating other off-farm sectors within the village economy. Therefore, communities may struggle to use income derived from CBNRM to diversify their economy and shift away from natural resource consumption. Thirdly, as well as highlighting the importance of the local underlying economic structures when designing CBNRM programmes, this study also identifies potential behavioural factors which may limit the positive impact of CBNRM. The results of the lab-in-the-field experiment show that risk negatively impacts on effort and cooperation levels. Faced with pay-off equivalent situations, households were more likely to invest in public goods in risk neutral contexts than in risky contexts. Furthermore, common strategies to enhance cooperation such as communication and observation proved to be ineffective in the presence of risk. This highlights a potential flaw in the design of many CBNRM programmes where the risk to community owned assets and enterprises are unmitigated and uninsured. The uninsured risks in community assets may create the incentive for households to reduce their contributions to public goods and invest in their own private assets and enterprises, to the detriment of community-owned ones such as the conversion of community-owned wildlife grazing lands to private land for agriculture. Overall the results of the case study show that the CBNRM programme in the study area is likely to have limited benefits. With respect to the literature they may help to explain why the literature to date onthe economic impacts of CBNRM has been inconclusive. It is recommended to consider multiple methods and empirical strategies that consider individual households and livelihood strategies at the centre of analysis. Finally, the experiment results suggest that the presence of unmitigated risk poses a threat to community projects that are dependent on cooperation. Development practitioners may need to consider ways of insuring community projects against risks such as weather and wild-life conflicts.

U2 - 10.15488/3529

DO - 10.15488/3529

M3 - Doctoral thesis

CY - Hannover

ER -